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Plants

Use of Plants in pre-European times.

Numerous observations have been made on the uses of Polynesian plants and therefore the interaction between these plants and Polynesian civilization: ethnobotany. Those who were to become Polynesians brought with them on their voyages, like all peoples, the plants they considered the most useful. Thus, these plants have been studied both to identify their origins and also throw light on the origins of the Polynesians themselves. This approach was in effect the essential element of ethnobotanic research in Polynesia.

History and Pre-History of Polynesian Horticulture.

Why do we speak of horticultural history rather than agricultural history ? The distinction is important in Polynesia for it is difficult to classify the Polynesian as an agriculturist. He was, demonstrably, and happily remains, above all a horticulturist. In horticulture, each individual plant is the object of particular care, from the preparation of the soil to harvest, and in order to propagate, one takes cuttings, layers, grafts, plants out... whilst by contrast, in agriculture, plants are considered collectively - one ploughs, one sows... This difference of approach explains the particular relationship between a horticulturist and his plants and the love, always respectful, sometimes passionate, that the Polynesian feels for his plants.

Why this distinction between history and prehistory ? If to-day in France and Western Europe, one finds few plants spontaneously linked with the origin of cultivated plants, this is not the case in the tropical Pacific, where a goodly number of researchers see in certain plants, the ancient forms of utilization, veritable living archives of human history, possible evidence of the cultural beginnings of Man.

Thus for Cordyline terminalis, the "ti" or "auti" of the Polynesians, used for ornamental hedges but also as a spiritual and magical plant for fire-walking, all indications are that this plant, common from Indo-Malaysia to Polynesia, has always been intimately linked with all the traditions of these populations and came with them on their migrations since ancient times.

The Origin of Cultivated Plants in Polynesia.

Studies carried out on the origins of cultivated plants allow us to attribute the majority of useful pre-European Polynesian species to the Indian zone and its Indo-Malaysian sub-division, some like the "fe'i" and sugarcane to its prolongation into Melanesia, and a single species only, the sweet potato, probably to the Central American and Southern Mexican zone. Polynesian Horticulture.

If for some species, the form of their use in Polynesia was similar or close to that in the country of origin, as for example the candlenut (ti'a'iri), teve, mape, hue, 'ahi'a and pia, by contrast, for others like breadfruit, coconuts, taro, bananas and fe'i, the significant number of Polynesian varieties, sometimes special to one archipelago (Society, Marquesas, Tuamotu) shows that the Polynesians sought to create and multiply the forms which corresponded best to their tastes and to the natural environment in which they found themselves.

The importance and sometimes the exclusivity of parthenocarpic forms (without seeds) in certain fruits like the 'uru, bananas and fe'i demonstrates that the Polynesians knew how to select and improve their plants. The fact that the quasi-totality of fundamental food sources are propagated by planting proves that Polynesians were aware of these methods and how to preserve the quality of their plants. The use of compost, taro irrigation techniques and ditch (maite) cultivation on the atolls also evidence the horticultural prowess of the Polynesians. Certainly, the fact that their migrations allowed them to transport only a small number of species, that they had to acclimatize to very diverse conditions and above all that in Eastern Polynesia they found virtually no useful vegetable food stuff amongst the local flora, obliged them to take maximum advantage of their limited vegetable potentials, diversifying not only by the creation of new varieties but also by developing new culinary recipes.

The horticultural art of the Polynesians, developed out of necessity, was only possible because the proto-Polynesians were already familiar with horticulture, and a good number of indications point to its Indo-Oceanic origins, starting off amongst the fishing communities of the South East Asian coasts. Fishermen with their fish diet were naturally first interested in plants that could give them products for their nets and lines. Thus, the Hibiscus tiliceus (purau), present from Indo-Malaysia to Polynesia, provides a resistant fibre, previously much used for nets and lines and even as caulking agent; its light wood was and is still used to make canoes, oars and floats. In the same way, the Pipturus albidus (ro'a) provided fibers for fishing lines..

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Another characteristic of civilizations from Indo-Malaysia to Polynesia which negates the theory of an Indo-Oceanic horticultural "cradle", is the use of plants toxic to fish, such as Barringtonia asiatica (hotu) and the cerbera manghas (hutu reva). These plants as well as being used for fishing had medicinal and magical uses ; a correlation between the toxic and the magic which is common in this region. Magical and ritual plants are worth close attention by anthropologists and botanists. The study of their distribution, their origins as well as the comparison of their uses, their beliefs and associated traditions can serve to throw light on the history of Man in this widespread region.

Another characteristic of this Indo-Oceanic civilization is the beating of vegetable bark in order to make cloth, such as the Brousonetia papyrifera (aute), still cultivated today in the Marquesas for the production of tapa cloth. If one considers the taro, staple Polynesian food stuff, its origin is also Indo-Malaysian. This plant was certainly one of the first domesticated species to lose its importance in Indo-Malaysia after the development of rice, an aquatic plant which was originally no doubt just a weed in the taro ditches. As for the sweet potato, whose American origin appears certain, its presence in Tahiti revealed by Cook, can only be explained by one of the following three hypotheses: the Polynesians went to the Americas and brought it back, or Amerindians came to Polynesia, or Spanish navigators introduced it to Polynesia in the 16th century.

Plants used for fibers, textiles and dyes. Plants for fibers.

As fishermen, Polynesians were naturally interested in all plants producing fibers for their lines and nets. As navigators, they also needed ropes and sails. They answered these needs with certain plants like the Hibiscus tiliaceus (purau) for their lines, nets and ropes, and the Pipturus albidus (ro'a). If the purau was widespread and naturally gave quite long fibers, the ro'a on the other hand, had to be selected. To have the longest possible fibers, those with the longest internodes were selected and the selected plants were regularly disbudded.

Tacca leontopetaloides (pia). From this little plant, the fibers were taken and the floral stem for fine weaving. Pandanus tectorius (fara). The woven leaves were used to make sails and of course roofing.
Freycinetia arborea ('ie'ie). The leaves of this type of creeping pandanus were used for weaving.

Cocos nucifera (ha'ari), coconut palm. The woven fibers from the coconut made up the best rope.

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Textiles.

Cloth made from vegetable bark is also a feature of Polynesian civilization. All the bark was crushed then pounded for a long time using special hammers.  Broussonetia papyrifera (aute). This tree of the Moracea family appears to originate in Indo-Malaysia. From this region of origin to Polynesia, it was cultivated since the earliest times for cloth production. Also bark cloth, called tapa in Polynesia, is found in many other islands under different names. The fibers of this tree, called aute, are used to make a strong string.   Artocarpus altilis, breadfruit, ('uru) was also used and cultivated for the same purpose.

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Plants used for dyes

These plants had two former purposes : to color tapa cloth and monoi, the perfumed oils used as cosmetics. Red coloring from the fruit of the mati and the leaves of tou. This coloring agent is very interesting because it needs two different plants. Fresh flowers of mati and tou leaves must be crushed together to make the dye. If they are dry, no coloration develops. G. Cuzent recounts the traditional preparation : "After having removed the peduncle, the mati fruit is lightly squeezed and two or three drops of its greeny, milky sap are allowed to drop onto the tou leaves. As they become impregnated, the leaves are placed on top of each other, faces together. When a certain number have been prepared, they are piled up into a wooden vase and the red color appears immediately. The whole is diluted with a little water, strained and the residue pressed in a handful of coconut fibers. It is in this liquid that the tapa is soaked. The mati is a banyan, found in the valleys at the foot of the cliffs.

Yellow dye of the 'opuhi . This 'ophui of the valleys is very abundant along the streams. Its aromatic leaves crushed with the bark of the nono give a yellow dye which the Polynesians stabilize by adding a few shavings from the kernel of the 'ati (Calophyllum inophyllum). The 'ophui found today in gardens with its red inflorescence was introduced some fifty years ago.

Yellow dye from the re'a tahiti. This dye stuff was prepared by grating the fresh rhizome of the re'a and steeping it in coconut oil. After expressing and clarifying the residue, the dye was used mainly to color the body where it resisted bathing for a certain time. The rhizome of the re'a was also used as a condiment.

Yellow nono dye. To prepare the dye, the roots were peeled then grated. The gratings were soaked in water and, after filtering, the dye was used to color tapa cloth. The nono is known and used from Indo-Malaysia to Polynesia. The fe'i contains a number of colorants. The mature fruit gives a red dye ; after cooking, the color changes to an orange yellow. From the trunk, one can extract a purplish-blue colorant.

Red dyes from the bark of the 'aito and the ti'a'iri. These two are used to color tapa.

Medicinal and toxic plants.

Tahitian medicine, essentially based on plants, has several characteristics that distinguish it from other traditional medicines : the plants are always used fresh ; the preparations always use a variety of plants; toxic plants are only used externally. are only used externally.

Medicinal plants.

The vegetable organs employed are very varied : entire plants (tumu),young shoots (ohi or oteu), leaves (rau'ere), rhizomes or roots (a'a), flower buds (imoa), open flowers (tiare 'ua'a), petioles (hi'ata), fruits (ma'a), bark (pa'a) or seeds (huero)  In the formula, the doses used are always precise. Thus the numbers are given for leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds and young shoots; for the bark, the sizes and for the roots, the lengths. The most commonly used liquid for internal uses is coconut juice, coming from a young coconut of the 'oviri variety. The nuts of this variety are small, pointed at the top, their skin green up to maturity, becoming grayish only when they are about to fall. Filters are made from the fibers of Cyperus pennatus (mo'u ha'ari). For internal treatments, potions were prepared, coconut juice being replaced by spring water if they had to be heated, syrups (using sugar cane, to), purgatives (always with coconut oil) and enemas.

For external treatments, lotions were prepared, friction rubs, poultices wrapped in ti leaves, inhalations, fumigations, gargles, mouth washes and eye drops.

For inhalations, two long coconuts were used, sliced and placed on top of each other. The bottom nut contained the water, heated over a fire and the upper nut contained the medicines. The vapor was inhaled through the nose.

Magical Plants.

The 'ava or kava. In the pre-European era, Polynesians knew of just one stupefying drink, prepared by chewing the fresh root of 'ava (Piper methysticum) and soaking the torn fibers, impregnated with saliva, in water. Occasionally the stem was also used. This plant appears to have  originated in Western Melanesia. Plantations were established close to settlements, preferably on slightly sloping and not too damp terrain. In effect, the Polynesians had noted that the effects were less powerful if the roots came from damper areas. One of the corners of the plantations was reserved for the varua 'ino (evil spirits), to propitiate them and their reserved plants were specially marked off using a bark string. The atua (gods) also had their share. These plants were taboo. Polynesians count 14 varieties, distinguished according to their stupefying quality, their color, the size and height of the stems, the length of the internodes and the variations of leaves. The root was chewed, most often by young girls or alternatively by young men. Its meticulous preparation was a sacred practice. In small quantity, the 'ava is a tonic drink, stimulating, formerly used in battle; in larger doses it produces a silent and soporific inebriation. Women rarely use it. 'Ava was drunk from a cup made of a coconut half shell.

The missionaries had the 'ava plantations destroyed, the navigators taught the Polynesians how to prepare alcoholic drinks and to-day one finds only the odd relic clumps hidden in the valleys. However elsewhere in other Pacific islands, kava is still very much a favorite drink even if made differently. A powder is prepared from the dried roots, placed in a sachet like tea and the resulting drink is without apparent effect. G. Cuzent, who has made an extensive study of kava, has extracted the active ingredient, kavahine, used today in certain medicines.  It is curious that the other stupefiant of the Pacific Islands, betel gum, originally from Indo-Malaysia, failed to reach Polynesia.

Plants that are toxic to fish.

The use of plant poisons in fishing is one of the characteristics of fishing in Polynesia. These same plants also had medicinal and magical properties and their use for fishing made a powerful impression on the first Europeans.  Tephrosia purpurea (hora). This little, more or less climbing, plant, of Indo-Malaysian origin, surely came with the Polynesians on their migrations. It was once prolific on the coastal plain and on the dry hills but is now less easily discovered. Its leaves contain tephrosine, toxic to fish but not to livestock which are in general very partial to it. The bark and the leaves of this little papilionacea also have purgative qualities.  Barringtonia asiatica (hotu). This fine tree grows on tropical shores from India to Polynesia. Its glossy leaves are very decorative, its pretty flowers with their large pink stamens have a fine aroma and its large green fruits are in the form of a reversed cone; it is its rich kernel that contains saponine which is used as a poison.  The hora and the hotu were formerly the most widely used fish poisons. The hotu fruit was gathered from the ground and its kernel finely grated.

The powder thus obtained was placed in little baskets of ni'au which were shaken near to the coral blocks. The effect is very rapid for after ten or so minutes, after first becoming excited, the fish are then paralyzed. Hotu is also toxic to man and used as a medicinal plant to treat infected wounds or stone-fish (nohu) bites. Cerhera manghas (hutu reva or reva in Tahiti, eva in the Marquesas and ereva in the Australs). This small tree, common on the coast plains and in the valleys of Indo-Malaysia as far as Polynesia, is sometimes planted to-day for ornamental reasons thanks to its sweet smelling white flowers. Its fruit is also used as a fish poison but, less effective, not as frequently as hotu and hora. However, its poison is the most dangerous to Man, and the bark, the leaves and the latex have medicinal properties. According to some studies, it is in the seeds that the toxic product is most concentrated.

Two other plants were used above all in the Marquesas and the Australs : the Sapindus saponaria (kohuu in the Marquesas); this tree of the Sapindacea family, of American origin, must have existed in Hawaii and in the Marquesas in the pre-European era. The fruit pulp is made up of 37% of saponine which is toxic to fish. It was also used as a soap and medicine plant for fever and rheumatism. This little tree is still common in the Marquesas. Rhynchosia minima (papa in the Marquesas, pipitai in Rapa) : this small liana of American origin, seems to have been used in the Marquesas and on Rapa in pre-European times. The poison, similar to rotenone, comes from the leaves.

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